Computer-aided simulation of multi-layer selective laser sintering and melting additive manufacturing processes

ABSTRACT

A method and system is provided for computer-aided simulation of multi-layer selective laser sintering and melting in an additive manufacturing processes. The method may include receiving a solid model. The method may also include slicing the solid model geometry along a build direction and creating 3D meshes that represent manufacturing layers. In addition, the method may include simulating manufacture of each of the 3D meshes to produce corresponding deformed 3D meshes. Further, the method may include building a 3D mesh model from the deformed 3D meshes and displaying the 3D mesh model.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/052,786, filed Sep. 19, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure is directed, in general, to computer-aided design (“CAD”), visualization, engineering (“CAE”) and manufacturing (“CAM”) systems, product lifecycle management (“PLM”) systems, and similar systems, that manage data for products and other items (collectively, “Product Data Management” systems or PDM systems).

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

PDM systems manage PLM and other data. Improved systems are desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

Various disclosed embodiments include methods for computer-aided simulation of multi-layer selective laser sintering and melting additive manufacturing processes and corresponding systems and computer-readable mediums. A method includes receiving a solid model; slicing the solid model geometry along build direction and creating 2D sheet bodies; utilizing the sheet bodies to slice the 3D solid model; and displaying the resulting 3D layered body.

Another method includes receiving a solid model; slicing the solid model geometry along build direction and creating 2D meshes for each layer; applying displacements to the 2D meshes and creating 3D meshes for each layer to match the layer thickness; applying loads, boundary conditions, and constraints to the 3D mesh; and displaying the resulting deformed 3D layer mesh.

Another method includes receiving a solid model. The method includes slicing the solid model geometry along a build direction and creating 3D meshes that represent manufacturing layers; this can include creating sheet bodies and 2D meshes based on the slices and extruding the 2D meshes to create the 3D meshes. The method includes simulating manufacture of each of the 3D meshes to produce corresponding deformed 3D meshes. The method includes building a 3D mesh model of the whole part from the deformed 3D mesh of each layer. The method can include applying thermal and structural loads and constraints to one or more of the 3D meshes. The method includes displaying the 3D mesh model.

According to various embodiments, the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh to produce the corresponding deformed 3D mesh. According to various embodiments, the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh according to underlying deformed 3D meshes. According to various embodiments, the data processing system applies displacements to at least one of the 3D meshes by applying model loads, or model constraints to that 3D mesh. According to various embodiments, the data processing system compares the resulting 3D mesh model with the solid model. According to various embodiments, simulating manufacture of each 3D mesh to produce a corresponding deformed 3D mesh includes simulating thermal or structural distortions caused by the manufacturing process. According to various embodiments, the data processing system simulates manufacture of each of the 3D meshes by applying build parameters or simulation parameters.

The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present disclosure so that those skilled in the art may better understand the detailed description that follows. Additional features and advantages of the disclosure will be described hereinafter that form the subject of the claims. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that they may readily use the conception and the specific embodiment disclosed as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present disclosure. Those skilled in the art will also realize that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the disclosure in its broadest form.

Before undertaking the DETAILED DESCRIPTION below, it may be advantageous to set forth definitions of certain words or phrases used throughout this patent document: the terms “include” and “comprise,” as well as derivatives thereof, mean inclusion without limitation; the term “or” is inclusive, meaning and/or; the phrases “associated with” and “associated therewith,” as well as derivatives thereof, may mean to include, be included within, interconnect with, contain, be contained within, connect to or with, couple to or with, be communicable with, cooperate with, interleave, juxtapose, be proximate to, be bound to or with, have, have a property of, or the like; and the term “controller” means any device, system or part thereof that controls at least one operation, whether such a device is implemented in hardware, firmware, software or some combination of at least two of the same. It should be noted that the functionality associated with any particular controller may be centralized or distributed, whether locally or remotely. Definitions for certain words and phrases are provided throughout this patent document, and those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that such definitions apply in many, if not most, instances to prior as well as future uses of such defined words and phrases. While some terms may include a wide variety of embodiments, the appended claims may expressly limit these terms to specific embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like numbers designate like objects, and in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a data processing system in which an embodiment can be implemented;

FIG. 2 illustrates numerically predicted deformation of a layer as compared to the original planned geometry, in accordance with disclosed embodiments;

FIG. 3 illustrates a flowchart of a process in accordance with disclosed embodiments; and

FIG. 4 illustrates various elements of a process as described herein, and is used to illustrate the process of FIG. 3.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIGS. 1 through 4, discussed below, and the various embodiments used to describe the principles of the present disclosure in this patent document are by way of illustration only and should not be construed in any way to limit the scope of the disclosure. Those skilled in the art will understand that the principles of the present disclosure may be implemented in any suitably arranged device. The numerous innovative teachings of the present application will be described with reference to exemplary non-limiting embodiments.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) and selective laser melting (SLM) are additive manufacturing technologies that build three dimensional parts by using a high power laser to selectively sinter or melt a powdered material layer by layer. They offer great advantages compared to traditional solid fabrication methods and are two of the common choices of solid freeform fabrication methods. Due to the presence of thermal gradient during heating and cooling, laser sintering or laser melting is known to introduce residual stress, which can cause deformations (warping) and/or cracks on the part. The presence of these defects can hinder tolerance and affect mechanical strength. However, the location and magnitude of such deformations are not always easily predictable, especially for complex geometries.

Disclosed embodiments include a computer-aided simulation tool that can help evaluate the locations and amounts of warping for any arbitrary geometry. Based on the results of the simulation, strategies to reduce warping can be derived and tested before manufacturing the part.

Some computer-aided engineering analysis software systems lack the functionalities to evaluate the warping defects. Warping of parts produced by SLS and SLM has been observed and investigated in the past, but to date, detailed studies have been limited to simplified geometries, for instance a single rectangular shaped layer. Overhang structures are known to be more prone to warping. But warping of more complex geometry has not yet been investigated, nor how can it be minimized. Earlier studies showed that pre-heating of base plate can reduce the thermal gradient in SLS. But this does not offer localized thermal gradient reduction for complex shapes. More recently, support structures, which are printed in attachment with the part, are designed to act as heat sinks to reduce thermal gradient and mechanical support overhang structures during the SLS and SLM processes. However, the impact of support structure design is still not thoroughly understood. There are also no clear guidelines on the placement and design of heat sinks relative to a part of arbitrary shape.

Disclosed embodiments include systems and methods that can numerically predict the mechanical deformation of a part during SLS or SLM. Disclosed techniques allow the user to understand what locations of a part are more prone to warping, and also functions as a test bed to find the optimal support structure design to reduce warping for any arbitrarily shaped part.

FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a data processing system in which an embodiment can be implemented, for example as a PDM system particularly configured by software or otherwise to perform the processes as described herein, and in particular as each one of a plurality of interconnected and communicating systems as described herein. The data processing system depicted includes a processor 102 connected to a level two cache/bridge 104, which is connected in turn to a local system bus 106. Local system bus 106 may be, for example, a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) architecture bus. Also connected to local system bus in the depicted example are a main memory 108 and a graphics adapter 110. The graphics adapter 110 may be connected to display 111.

Other peripherals, such as local area network (LAN)/Wide Area Network/Wireless (e.g. WiFi) adapter 112, may also be connected to local system bus 106. Expansion bus interface 114 connects local system bus 106 to input/output (I/O) bus 116. I/O bus 116 is connected to keyboard/mouse adapter 118, disk controller 120, and I/O adapter 122. Disk controller 120 can be connected to a storage 126, which can be any suitable machine usable or machine readable storage medium, including but not limited to nonvolatile, hard-coded type mediums such as read only memories (ROMs) or erasable, electrically programmable read only memories (EEPROMs), magnetic tape storage, and user-recordable type mediums such as floppy disks, hard disk drives and compact disk read only memories (CD-ROMs) or digital versatile disks (DVDs), and other known optical, electrical, or magnetic storage devices. I/O adapter 122 can be connected to a laser print system 150, such as an SLS or SLM system, that is capable of performing laser-based additive manufacturing tasks as described herein to produce a physical part. Storage 126 can store any data described herein, including build parameters 162, simulation parameters 164, model loads 166, and model constraints 168.

Also connected to I/O bus 116 in the example shown is audio adapter 124, to which speakers (not shown) may be connected for playing sounds. Keyboard/mouse adapter 118 provides a connection for a pointing device (not shown), such as a mouse, trackball, trackpointer, touchscreen, etc.

Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the hardware depicted in FIG. 1 may vary for particular implementations. For example, other peripheral devices, such as an optical disk drive and the like, also may be used in addition or in place of the hardware depicted. The depicted example is provided for the purpose of explanation only and is not meant to imply architectural limitations with respect to the present disclosure.

A data processing system in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure includes an operating system employing a graphical user interface. The operating system permits multiple display windows to be presented in the graphical user interface simultaneously, with each display window providing an interface to a different application or to a different instance of the same application. A cursor in the graphical user interface may be manipulated by a user through the pointing device. The position of the cursor may be changed and/or an event, such as clicking a mouse button, generated to actuate a desired response.

One of various commercial operating systems, such as a version of Microsoft Windows™, a product of Microsoft Corporation located in Redmond, Wash. may be employed if suitably modified. The operating system is modified or created in accordance with the present disclosure as described.

LAN/WAN/Wireless adapter 112 can be connected to a network 130 (not a part of data processing system 100), which can be any public or private data processing system network or combination of networks, as known to those of skill in the art, including the Internet. Data processing system 100 can communicate over network 130 with server system 140, which is also not part of data processing system 100, but can be implemented, for example, as a separate data processing system 100.

Disclosed embodiments include systems and methods that can numerically predict the mechanical deformation of a part caused by the repeated heating and cooling during selective laser sintering. The heating and cooling, as well as deposition of layers can be simulated. In an SLS or SLM system, when a part is being manufactured, successive layers of powder are added to a powder bed. Each layer of powder is laser-heated at specific points to solidify the powder at that point and fuse it to any solid portion in the previous powder layer. Because each layer is manufactured successively, any deformation in a lower layer affects the overlying layer(s). Disclosed embodiments can simulate and predict the deformation of a given layer and the cumulative deformation of many or all layers of the part.

For a given arbitrary shape, disclosed embodiments can split the shape into multiple slices based on the layer thickness. The “layer thickness” refers to the thickness of each powder layer that is to be used in the manufacturing process. After each finite element mesh layer is added to the domain, a coupled thermo-structural analysis can be performed to calculate the temperature and mechanical deformation for the heating and cooling during SLS or SLM. The displacements are applied to the finite element mesh and this process is repeated until all the layers are added and fused together. The final geometry can then be compared against originally planned 3D CAD model to identify locations that are deformed. In this embodiment, the simulation is performed by a CAE system in the same software environment of the CAD system. Also, temperature and mechanical stress maps during the heating and cooling phases can be analyzed to further understand why a certain region warps. Note that, while this specific example uses finite element analysis, other embodiments can be implemented using simulation methods different from finite element techniques.

Disclosed embodiments can exploit the capabilities of the structural and thermal solvers in, for example, the NX software product of Siemens Product Lifecycle Management Software Inc. (Plano, Tex.) to perform a coupled thermo-structural analysis to predict warping.

Thermal analysis: Using thermal simulation, the temperature gradient caused by heating or cooling of the laser beam can be simulated. Users can specify the laser power, time duration used to heat the layers, as well as time for cooling and boundary conditions of the heat transfer happening during heating and cooling.

Structural analysis: Disclosed embodiments, using structural simulation tools such as the NX Nastran software product of Siemens Product Lifecycle Management Software Inc. (Plano, Tex.), can calculate the mechanical stress associated with this temperature change. Structural constraints can be specified to indicate whether the part is constrained at any time. Structural load can also be specified if necessary. From the structural simulation, deformation of the part is calculated. Also, mechanical stress within a part due to the thermal strain can also be evaluated. This tool also has the capability to evaluate inelastic strain when the appropriate material properties are properly defined.

Coupled thermo-structural analysis: the thermal and structural analysis processes can be performed simultaneously, disclosed embodiments can couple the two simulations and automate this coupled thermo-structural analysis. Spatially and temporally varying temperature will affect the deformation, and at the same time, the deformation (hence change in geometry of domain for thermal simulation) also affects the prediction of temperature gradient in thermal analysis.

FIG. 2 illustrates numerically predicted deformation of a layer (which can be color-coded by displacement) as compared to the original planned geometry (which can be differently colored). This figure shows an example of a simulated layer 202 as a thin three-dimensional (3D) mesh with deformation as compared to an undeformed layer 204. In this example, there is relatively little deformation in the center area 206, but a greater amount of deformation at edge areas such as at edge 208, and a significant deformation at corner 210.

Disclosed embodiments provide several technical advantages. Disclosed embodiments can handle any arbitrary geometry, as SLS and SLM parts can come in very complex forms. Heat sinks designs can be incorporated and tested.

Disclosed embodiments can be applied for SLS or SLM of any material, as long as the material properties are supplied.

Disclosed embodiments allow the operating condition to be adjusted (e.g. laser power, powder bed temperature, duration of heating/cooling, layer thickness, cooling temperature, substrate base plate temperature, mechanical constraints etc.)

Systems and methods as described herein can help improve the quality of parts fabricated by SLS and SLM. Using this tool, location of warping can be identified numerically before the part is being printed. Design of various support structures can be tested without physically printing all the different configurations. This saves material cost. This tool can take in any arbitrary shape, as well as heat sink design. The effect of adding heat sinks can also be evaluated, so that warping can be minimized. With this tool, users can add heat sinks of different configurations and find the design that minimizes warping for a given part.

FIG. 3 illustrates a flowchart of a process in accordance with disclosed embodiments that may be performed, for example, by a PLM or PDM system, whether implemented as a data processing system 100 as described above, as a “cloud-based” data processing system, or otherwise. FIG. 4 illustrates various elements of a process as described herein, and is used to illustrate the process of FIG. 3.

The system receives a solid model (305), such as solid model 402 illustrated in FIG. 4. Receiving, as used herein, can include loading from storage, receiving from another device or process, receiving via an interaction with a user, or otherwise. This process can include specifying or receiving build parameters 162, that specify how the part represented by the solid model 402 will be manufactured, and specifying or receiving simulations parameters 164, that specify how the solid model 402 simulates the part or its manufacture.

The system slices the solid model geometry along build direction and creates 3D meshes (310). The system slices the solid model geometry in such a way as to produce 3D meshes that correspond to the successive layers that will be used to create the corresponding part, from bottom to top, using SLS or SLM techniques; the 3D mesh for each layer may also be referred to herein as a 3D layer mesh. In FIG. 4, solid model 402 is sliced into layers to create 3D meshes 404 (represented by the dotted-line layers in FIG. 4). Simulated layer 202 is an example of a 3D mesh 404.

In the process of generating the 3D mesh, the system can first generate a 2D mesh of the top surface of the layer, and then generate, from the 2D mesh, the 3D mesh of the layer by a projection process. The projection process can be similar to a node-wise extrusion where the extrude distance varies between nodes of the 2D mesh according to the top surface location of the deformed 3D mesh under the node.

The system simulates manufacture of each 3D mesh, representing a manufacturing layer, to produce a corresponding deformed 3D mesh (315). As part of the simulation, the system applies displacements to one or more of the existing 3D meshes to produce the corresponding deformed 3D mesh; the displacements can be made according to any underlying deformed 3D meshes, whether separate or in combination. The displacements can be made by applying thermal or structural model loads (which can include boundary conditions) or model constraints to the 3D mesh. The displacements can be made specifically according to thermal-structural coupled manufacturing simulations; that is, while simulating manufacture of a given 3D mesh layer, the system simulates the thermal or structural distortions caused by the manufacturing process itself (as illustrated in FIG. 2), and applies these distortions as displacements to the deformed 3D mesh. The simulated manufacture can be performed according to the build parameters or the simulation parameters.

The system builds a 3D mesh model from the deformed 3D meshes (320). The 3D mesh model is a model of the part to be manufactured, and the combined 3D mesh layers represent the part including deformations produced by the simulated manufacture process. Steps 315 and 320 can be performed as a repeating iterative process, so that each layer 3D mesh is added to the 3D mesh model of the part after applying displacements according to the current 3D mesh model and the resulting deformed 3D mesh is simulated to obtain the cumulative effect of the distortions. 3D mesh model 312 illustrates a 3D mesh model being created from layers of deformed layer 3D meshes 414.

The system displays the resulting 3D mesh model (325). This can include comparing the resulting 3D mesh model 412 with the solid model 402 to illustrate the deformations anticipated to be caused by the actual manufacture process.

The system can manufacture the 3D mesh model or the solid model (330). Of course, when the simulations are correct, printing the solid model using SLS or SLM techniques as described herein will produce a physical part that more closely resembles the 3D mesh model, since the 3D mesh model reflects the deformations detected from the simulations of producing each of the layers.

The following patent publications and papers are incorporated by reference: WO2014/028879 A1, Feb. 20, 2014; PCT/US2013/055422, Aug. 16, 2013, Proceedings of Solid Freeform Symposium, 2001/P. 366-372; Proceedings of 17th, Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, 2006/P. 709-720; Proceedings of Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium Proceedings, 2013; Proceedings of Solid Freeform Symposium, 2000/P. 209-218; The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2013/Vol. 65/P. 1471-1484; International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 2002/Vol. 44/P. 57-77; International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 2002/Vol. 42/P. 61-67; Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 2007/Vol. 45/P. 1115-1130; Proceedings of 23rd Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, 2012/P. 707-718; Physics Procedia, 2013/Vol. 41/P. 894-857; and Procedia CIRP, 2013/Vol. 12/P. 169-174.

Of course, those of skill in the art will recognize that, unless specifically indicated or required by the sequence of operations, certain steps in the processes described above may be omitted, performed concurrently or sequentially, or performed in a different order.

Those skilled in the art will recognize that, for simplicity and clarity, the full structure and operation of all data processing systems suitable for use with the present disclosure is not being depicted or described herein. Instead, only so much of a data processing system as is unique to the present disclosure or necessary for an understanding of the present disclosure is depicted and described. The remainder of the construction and operation of data processing system 100 may conform to any of the various current implementations and practices known in the art.

It is important to note that while the disclosure includes a description in the context of a fully functional system, those skilled in the art will appreciate that at least portions of the mechanism of the present disclosure are capable of being distributed in the form of instructions contained within a machine-usable, computer-usable, or computer-readable medium in any of a variety of forms, and that the present disclosure applies equally regardless of the particular type of instruction or signal bearing medium or storage medium utilized to actually carry out the distribution. Examples of machine usable/readable or computer usable/readable mediums include: nonvolatile, hard-coded type mediums such as read only memories (ROMs) or erasable, electrically programmable read only memories (EEPROMs), and user-recordable type mediums such as floppy disks, hard disk drives and compact disk read only memories (CD-ROMs) or digital versatile disks (DVDs).

Although an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure has been described in detail, those skilled in the art will understand that various changes, substitutions, variations, and improvements disclosed herein may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure in its broadest form.

None of the description in the present application should be read as implying that any particular element, step, or function is an essential element which must be included in the claim scope: the scope of patented subject matter is defined only by the allowed claims. Moreover, none of these claims are intended to invoke 35 USC § 112(f) unless the exact words “means for” are followed by a participle. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method performed by a data processing system for computer-aided manufacture of a part using additive manufacturing processes, comprising: through operation of at least one processor included in the data processing system: receiving a solid model of the part; slicing the solid model along a build direction and creating 3D meshes that represent manufacturing layers; simulating manufacture of each of the 3D meshes being deposited via laser heating or sintering of a material by a laser beam of a laser print system, including carrying out thermal and structural analysis of the 3D meshes to produce corresponding deformed 3D meshes based on temperature gradients and mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and including evaluating effects of adding different heat sink configurations to identify a design that minimizes warping of the part; building a 3D mesh model from the deformed 3D meshes and the identified design that minimizes warping of the part; and manufacturing the part according to the 3D mesh model and deformations based on the temperature gradients and the mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and using the identified design, to minimize warping in the manufactured part.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh to produce the corresponding deformed 3D mesh.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh according to underlying deformed 3D meshes.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to at least one of the 3D meshes by applying model loads or model constraints to that 3D mesh.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the data processing system compares the resulting 3D mesh model with the solid model.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein simulating manufacture of each 3D mesh to produce a corresponding deformed 3D mesh includes simulating thermal gradients and structural distortions caused by the manufacturing process, wherein the displayed 3D mesh model is color coded by amount of displacement relative to the original solid model in order to display a prediction of location and magnitude of deformations in the part resulting from being printed.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the data processing system simulates manufacture of each of the 3D meshes by applying build parameters or simulation parameters.
 8. A data processing system for computer-aided manufacture of a part comprising: a processor; and an accessible memory, the data processing system particularly configured to receive a solid model of the part; slice the solid model along a build direction and create 3D meshes that represent manufacturing layers; simulate manufacture of each of the 3D meshes being deposited via laser heating or sintering of a material by a laser beam of a laser print system, including carrying out thermal and structural analysis of the 3D meshes to produce corresponding deformed 3D meshes based on temperature gradients and mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and including evaluating effects of adding different heat sink configurations to identify a design that minimizes warping of the part; build a 3D mesh model from the deformed 3D meshes and the identified design that minimizes warping of the part; and thereafter cause the part to be manufactured according to the 3D mesh model and deformations based on the temperature gradients and the mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and using the identified design, to minimize warping in the manufactured part.
 9. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh to produce the corresponding deformed 3D mesh.
 10. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh according to underlying deformed 3D meshes.
 11. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to at least one of the 3D meshes by applying model loads or model constraints to that 3D mesh.
 12. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein the data processing system compares the resulting 3D mesh model with the solid model.
 13. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein simulating manufacture of each 3D mesh to produce a corresponding deformed 3D mesh includes simulating thermal gradients and structural distortions caused by the manufacturing process, wherein the displayed 3D mesh model is color coded by amount of displacement relative to the original solid model in order to display a prediction of location and magnitude of deformations in the part resulting from being printed.
 14. The data processing system of claim 8, wherein the data processing system simulates manufacture of each of the 3D meshes by applying build parameters or simulation parameters.
 15. A non-transitory computer-readable medium encoded with executable instructions that, when executed by at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to carry out a method comprising: receiving a solid model of a part; slicing the solid model along a build direction and create 3D meshes that represent manufacturing layers; simulating manufacture of each of the 3D meshes being deposited via laser heating or sintering of a material by a laser beam of a laser print system, including carrying out thermal and structural analysis of the 3D meshes to produce corresponding deformed 3D meshes based on temperature gradients and mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and including evaluating effects of adding different heat sink configurations to identify a design that minimizes warping of the part; building a 3D mesh model from the deformed 3D meshes and the identified design that minimizes warping of the part; and thereafter causing the manufacture of the part according to the 3D mesh model and deformations based on the temperature gradients and the mechanical stress determined during the simulated manufacturing, and using the identified design, to minimize warping in the manufactured part.
 16. The computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh to produce the corresponding deformed 3D mesh.
 17. The computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to each 3D mesh according to underlying deformed 3D meshes.
 18. The computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein the data processing system applies displacements to at least one of the 3D meshes by applying model loads or model constraints to that 3D mesh.
 19. The computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein the data processing system compares the resulting 3D mesh model with the solid model.
 20. The computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein simulating manufacture of each 3D mesh to produce a corresponding deformed 3D mesh includes simulating thermal gradients and structural distortions caused by the manufacturing process, wherein the displayed 3D mesh model is color coded by amount of displacement relative to the original solid model in order to display a prediction of location and magnitude of deformations in the part resulting from being printed. 